Beneficios y "maleficios" del cribado. El sobrediagnóstico y la medicina anticipativa / Benefits and damages of Screening. Overdiagnosis and anticipatory medicine

Mucho han cambiado los resultados en el tratamiento del cáncer de mama desde la publicación de trabajos que recomendaban la realización de cribados para diagnosticar precozmente los tumores de mama. Los posteriores re-análisis, que mostraron errores en las evaluaciones, los avances en la terapia oncológica y la concienciación de profesionales y público, han demostrado la dudosa efectividad de esta medida y como contrapartida los riesgos dependientes por sobrediagnóstico y sobretratamiento. Por otra parte la falta de información e incluso la desinformación existente sobre el tema, han ocasionado una desorientación entre los posibles beneficiarios del procedimiento. Se les ha recomendado, por parte de organizaciones, plataformas, sociedades privadas y servicios de salud pública, un procedimiento ocultando daños importantes: físicos, psicológicos y económicos. Es fácil promover el examen de mamografía si la mayoría de las mujeres cree que previene o reduce el riesgo de contraer cáncer de seno y salva muchas vidas mediante la detección temprana de tumores agresivos. Desgraciadamente eso no es así. A la vista de ello, existen muchos detractores del cribado que vienen recomendando la información fiable y correcta y la indicación personal no tanto del cribado como de la exploración como procedimiento diagnóstico. Las mujeres deben discutir con sus médicos su propio perfil de riesgo, los posibles beneficios, daños y complejidades de la mamografía de detección, y tomar decisiones informadas sobre la realización del cribado. Definir qué mujeres se beneficiarían de un seguimiento debido a factores de riesgo definidos y aquellas que por el contrario corren más riesgos que beneficios. Un programa de salud pública que claramente no produce más beneficios que daños es difícil de justificar. Proporcionar información clara e imparcial, promover la atención adecuada y prevenir el sobrediagnóstico y el sobretratamiento sería la mejor opción

Treatment of breast cancer has changed markedly since the publication of papers recommending screening programs for early diagnosis. Posterior reevaluations demonstrated mistakes; advances in oncological therapy and better knowledge of the problem have demonstrated the doubtful efficacy of these procedures which, on the other hand have also side effects with risk of overdiagnosis and overtreatment. Misinformation confuses patients. This procedure has been recommended by many institutions without explaining possible important risks. It is very easy to promote mammograms if the majority feel that it reduces risk of breast cancer and saves many lives. Unfortunately this is not the case. At present there are many people against screening who are recommending explicit and precise explanations of the procedure as well as of the importance of physical examination. Women must discuss with their physicians their own risk, possible benefits and eventual risks and damages of mammograms and they must take informed decision about screening. Women should be classified in those with potential benefits of mammograms and those with more risks than benefits. A program which does not offer clearly more benefits than risks cannot be implemented by Public Heath institutions. Complete and impartial information, adequate attention and prevention of overdiagnosis and overtreatment would be the best option

Mandatory HIV screening, migration and HIV stigma in Canada: exploring the experiences of sub-Saharan African immigrants living with HIV in western Canada. / Dépistage obligatoire du VIH, migration et stigmatisation liée au VIH au Canada : analyse de l'expérience d'immigrants d'Afrique subsaharienne vivant avec le VIH dans l'Ouest canadien.

INTRODUCTION: In this mixed-methods pilot study, we examined the intersections of the current Canadian immigration policy, mandatory HIV screening during the Immigration Medical Exam (IME) and enacted and internalized stigma for HIV-positive immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in a western Canadian province. We focus on qualitative findings from this study. METHODS: Using the Internalized HIV Stigma Scale (IHSS), we collected data from eight immigrants from SSA living with HIV in a western Canadian province. We then conducted semistructured interviews with seven of the eight participants. Due to the small sample size, survey data were summarized using descriptive analysis. Qualitative data were analyzed through constant comparative analysis. RESULTS: The following key themes emerged from analysis of qualitative data: experiences of HIV-related emotional distress during the IME; varied experiences of HIV testing during the IME; and inconsistent patterns of linkage to medical care, psychosocial supports and engagement in the HIV care cascade. CONCLUSION: Findings from this pilot study cannot be generalized to the broader population of immigrants living with HIV in Canada. However, we found that the experiences of internalized HIV stigma and enacted stigma during the IME potentially influence the long-term engagement in the HIV care cascade during the process of migration and settlement in Canada. Further study in this population is recommended to examine the intersections of current mandatory HIV screening process during the Canadian immigration process, migration, settlement, culture, stigma and engagement in the HIV care cascade.

Ethical Challenges of HIV Partner Notification in Prisons.

Partner services provide a safe and humane way for people living with HIV (PLWH) to alert their sex and/or drug-injecting partners to the possibility of HIV exposure and the need for HIV testing, yet little is known about the ethical challenges of delivering partner services in prisons. In this article, we consider 7 key ethical and methodological questions that should be considered when developing, testing, or implementing partner services in prison settings. These questions relate to the ethics of: (1) mandatory HIV testing, (2) health illiteracy, (3) level of prison staff involvement, (4) protecting confidentiality, (5) minimizing harm, (6) achieving equivalency with community standards of care, and (7) providing HIV prevention and treatment services to index patient and their partners. By assisting PLWH in prison to inform partners with whom they may have shared HIV exposure either before or during incarceration, partner services can help to identify cases of undiagnosed HIV infection for testing and linkage to medical care. The acceptability and effectiveness of a future partner services model for PLWH in prison depends critically on answering these 7 questions to assure the highest ethical standards of research and practice.

Academic disputes the value of testing students for compassion.

A leading nurse academic has said that testing prospective nursing students for compassion is futile.

Total control: a critical analysis of mandatory HIV testing in U.S. prisons.

The aim of this paper is to explore the relationship between mandatory HIV testing and the institutional management of inmates in U.S. prisons. Mandatory HIV testing has been largely overlooked by the nursing community even though it has important human rights and ethical implications. Drawing on the work of Goffman (1990) on the inner workings of total institutions, the present article critically examines the deployment of mandatory HIV testing in U.S. prisons. To set the stage, we define mandatory HIV testing and describe the methods of HIV testing currently used in U.S. prison settings. Then, we provide a brief overview of the concept of total institution and the mortification process. Finally, we expand on the relationship between mandatory HIV testing and much larger institutional objectives of total control, total structuring, total isolation, and separation of inmates from society (as summarized by Farrington, 1992). And lastly, we provide a brief discussion on the implications of mandatory HIV testing (as a method of HIV testing) from a nursing perspective.

Common criteria among States for storage and use of dried blood spot specimens after newborn screening.

Biological samples collected in biobanks are a resource with significant research potential. The Italian Joint Group CNB - CNBBSV (National Committee of Bioethics - National Committee for Biosecurity, Biotechnologies and Life Sciences) published a document reporting recommendations on storage and use of dried blood spot (DBS) and on the development of a National Network of Regional Newborn Screening Repositories for collection of residual DBS. Several ethical questions (about consent, possible use of genetic information, unanticipated possible usages for research purposes) rise from residual newborn screening specimens collections. Moreover, legal and ethical controversies are accentuated by the conflicts between the interests of sample donors, biobank holders, researchers and the public. To overcome these difficulties the identification of a few criteria for storage and research usage of DBS is crucial.

Ethical issues with newborn screening in the genomics era.

Continued technological advances have made the prospect of routine whole-genome sequencing (WGS) imminent. To date, much of the discussion about WGS has focused on its application and use in clinical medicine. Relatively little attention has been paid to the potential integration of WGS into newborn screening programs. Given the structure and scope of these programs, it is possible that the early applications of WGS will occur in state-run newborn screening programs. Assessment of the pressing ethical issues currently facing the newborn screening community will provide insight into the challenges that lie ahead in the genomics era.

Governing bodies and spaces: a critical analysis of mandatory human immunodeficiency virus testing in correctional facilities.

As it currently stands, mandatory human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing of prisoners is performed by nurses in more than 24 states and throughout the federal correctional system. The aim of this article was to bring to the attention of the nursing community the inner workings of mandatory HIV testing and its implications for HIV-positive prisoners. Building on a recent report published by Human Rights Watch, we critically examine the deployment of mandatory HIV testing in state correctional facilities located in Alabama and South Carolina. We, therefore, intend to situate this practice within a bio-political logic and explore its human rights consequence.

Mandatory ECG screening of athletes: is this question now resolved?

European and North American cardiologists have long debated the need for mandatory ECG screening of athletes in order to prevent sudden cardiac death. European investigators have recently adduced new evidence, which they believe supports the need for such screening. They note a decrease of sudden cardiac deaths among Italian athletes following the introduction of mandatory screening in that country, clearer definitions of resting ECG abnormalities in athletes, new and more encouraging calculations of cost/benefit ratios and direct comparisons of clinical examination alone against clinical examination plus ECG screening. Nevertheless, it seems that critical criteria for the success of any screening procedure (a substantial prevalence of the problem, coupled with an adequate test sensitivity and specificity) have yet to be satisfied. Very few athletes are liable to sudden cardiac death, only a few of those who are vulnerable will be identified by ECG screening, and even if all potential cases could be detected, restriction of their physical activity would be unlikely to have a major influence on their prognosis. At the same time, a requirement of mandatory testing would discourage engagement in physical activity, and would impose substantial direct costs on the community. Moreover, the large number of false positive test results could have important and undesirable consequences for both indirect medical costs and the overall health of competitors. ECG screening might become more effective if it could be focused on a smaller sub-group of vulnerable athletes, or if the problem of false positive tests could be addressed through an increase of test specificity. However, on the basis of current information, it would seem better to direct efforts in preventive medicine to more common causes of premature death in the young adult.

The impact of premarital HIV testing: a perspective from selected countries from the Arabian Peninsula.

Although voluntary HIV testing is still more dominant than the mandatory form, in accordance with the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and Centers for Disease Control recommendations, there are still millions of people who are mandatorily tested before marriage. This article presents policies toward mandatory premarital HIV testing (PHT) in selected Arabian Peninsula countries, focusing on details of the testing as experienced by high-school students, who were participants of a recent research study conducted in the United Arab Emirates. With a high acceptance for mandatory premarital and periodical marital HIV testing among young Emirates, showing a feeling of vulnerability to contracting the infection, possible explanations for such feelings is also discussed. The advantages and disadvantages of PHT are presented with a focus on Arabian Peninsula countries. The author concludes that while a positive PHT result may be socially isolating, the challenge in Arab countries is to stimulate efforts into shifting social norms toward a destigmatization of disease, acceptance, and support of HIV-infected persons with reference to religion and compassion. Recommendations, which consider the specific nature of Arab countries, predominately governed by Islamic laws are formulated. A PHT program could benefit from adequate legislation acts followed by education and counseling based on government policy, religious body support, and an involvement of NGOs and international agencies.

Ethics of mandatory research biopsy for correlative end points within clinical trials in oncology.

Clinical investigators in oncology are increasingly interested in using molecular analysis of cancer tissue to understand the biologic bases of response or resistance to novel interventions and to develop prognostic and predictive biomarkers that will guide clinical decision making. Some scientific questions of this nature can only be addressed, or may best be addressed, through the conduct of a clinical trial in which research biopsies are obtained from all participants. However, trial designs with mandatory research biopsies have raised ethical concerns related to the risk of harm to participants, the adequacy of voluntary informed consent, and the potential for misunderstanding among research participants when access to an experimental intervention is linked to the requirement to undergo a research biopsy. In consideration of the ethical and scientific issues at stake in this debate, the Cancer and Leukemia Group B Ethics Committee proposes guidelines for clinical trials involving mandatory research biopsies. Any cancer clinical trial that requires research biopsies of participants must be well designed to address the scientific question, obtain the biopsy in a way that minimizes risk, and ensure that research participants are fully informed of the risks, rationale, and requirements of the study, as well as of treatment alternatives. Further guidelines and discussions of this issue are specified in this position paper. We feel that if these principles are respected, an informed adult with cancer can both understand and voluntarily consent to participation in a clinical trial involving mandatory research biopsy for scientific end points.

HIV testing of health care workers in England--a flawed policy.

A new Department of Health policy in England, published in 2007, recommended changes to the pre-employment health checks performed on health care workers before taking up their employment. The policy proposed that all new health care workers should receive immunization against TB and hepatitis B and should be offered testing for hepatitis C and HIV. It also advanced a new requirement that staff who perform exposure-prone procedures must be tested for TB, hepatitis B and C and HIV and must test negative for these diseases. Essentially mandatory HIV testing has been introduced for a large number of health care workers. The aim of the recommendations is to protect patients from contracting serious communicable diseases from health care professionals. Secondary objectives of the directive are to maintain confidence in the workforce and reduce the burden of patient notification exercises. This essay explores some of the shortcomings of this policy and examines the reasons why this policy will fail to meet its objectives. The justification for this new guidance is questioned and some of the ethical issues are highlighted.

Illicit drugs, testing, prevention and work in France: ethical and legal issues.

The use of illicit drugs in the workplace raises issues pertaining to prevention and safety and the responsibility of the various members of staff. It also brings into question the interface between work and private life. If employees are in theory responsible for their own safety and risk heavy penalties in the event of the consumption of illicit drugs in the workplace, such behaviour has to be proved. In reality, the worker can only be partially and marginally held liable, given the fact that the employer is prohibited from infringing on their rights and liberties (restrictions on the searching of their personal belongings and lockers as well as on the carrying out of breath testing and saliva testing under restrictive conditions). Employers have for their part a broader range of responsibilities and, above all, an absolute obligation to achieve specific goals in terms of health and safety resulting in the need to take action. In accordance with the International Labour Organization recommendations, European and national legislation, the employer has to implement a suitable preventive policy. However, where is the balance between prevention and repression? Very few studies have raised these issues and our aim is to precisely situate the place of drug testing in the employer's repressive arsenal in France and to try to answer the legal and ethical issues raised. Thus, for example, repression can only be acceptable when it deals with moderate and non-addicted users, or it could be tantamount to discrimination.

Mandatory versus voluntary consent for newborn screening?

Virtually every infant in the United States undergoes a heel stick within the first week of life to test for a variety of metabolic, endocrine, and hematological conditions as part of state-run universal newborn screening (NBS) programs. The history of this mandatory public health program is examined, as well as whether the policy was morally justifiable. Three changes in NBS practice necessitate a re-evaluation of the mandatory nature of NBS. First is the adoption of NBS for hemoglobinopathies in the 1980s that led to the identification of many sickle cell carriers and carriers of other hemoglobin variants. In all other contexts, carrier testing requires consent, and there is no moral rationale why NBS ought to be exceptional. Second is the application of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) to NBS in the 1990s that led to the identification of many metabolic conditions and variants, some of which were not treatable and others of which had unknown clinical relevance. To the extent that the conditions do not need emergent diagnosis and treatment, there is less justification for mandatory screening. Third, there is great interest in using residual blood spots for research, and the cornerstone of research ethics is the voluntary consent of the participant (or his or her proxy). These three changes support revising mandatory NBS with a tiered consent process to best balance respect for parental autonomy and the promotion of children's health.

"It's 100% for me": hospital practitioners' perspectives on mandatory HIV testing.

This article explores the thinking of medical practitioners working in nine hospitals spread across five cities in India, on a contested subject--mandatory HIV testing of patients prior to surgery. We used in-depth interviews with practitioners and an interpretive analytical approach to understand their decisions to conduct mandatory tests. While many in the public health community see mandatory testing as an unacceptable violation of patient autonomy, the practitioners widely regarded it as a valuable cost-saving innovation for obviating transmission of infection during surgery. These conceptions are rooted in the day-to-day logic of practice which defines practitioners' actions--imperative of personal security, investment in core occupational roles and the importance of harmonious relations with co-workers. The experiences of hospitals with contrasting policies on mandatory HIV testing shows how an approach that balances patients' needs with an appreciation of practitioners' perspectives may result in more workable solutions for field-level ethical dilemmas.